One of the rare non-Apple laptops seen in an otherwise cool park full of cool people

One of the rare non-Apple laptops seen in an otherwise cool park full of cool people

Image by Ed Yourdon
This woman was typing away on a laptop computer ... alas, it was not an Apple Powerbook. But maybe she doesn't know any better. Just think: if she had been typing on a Mac, her photo probably would have been published a thousand times by now!

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Late in the afternoon on the last day in March 2009, I walked into Bryant Park, which is located behind the New York Public Library, between 41st and 42nd Street, facing Avenue of the Americas. There were several people reading and basking in the sun, a couple people typing on their laptop computers, and one chess game underway. I spent about half an hour wandering around to see what looked photo-worthy, and then wandered off to get some dinner...

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Note: even though this photo was taken in March 2009, Karen Bryan claims to have published it in a Nov 13, 2008 blog titled “'The Future of the Travel Blog' Presentation, Travel Blog Camp, London 11 November 2008." Back in the "real world," the photo was also published in an Apr 22, 2009 blog entitled "Greenify Your PC!." And it was published in a May 1, 2009 blog titled "Our New Toolbar Helps You Go Green." Then it was published in a Jul 8, 2009 blog titled "Five ways to maximize freelance writing income." And it was published in a Jul 16, 2009 blog titled "Facebook Your Way to Universal Healthcare in The Atlantic. More recently, it was published in an Aug 6, 2009 blog titled "Loudoun County Puts Development Applications Online, Earns National Accolades." And it was published in an Aug 17, 2009 Lifehacker blog titled "What Email Service Do You Use?" It was also published in a Sep 4, 2009 blog titled "http://humantrafficking.change.org/blog/view/want_to_blog_for_changeorg"

More recently, it was published in an undated (Oct 2009) blog titled "How to Fix Common Laptop Problems." And it was published in an Oct 21, 2009 Brazilian blog title " Custo é o diferencial na hora de escolher uma plataforma de blog." It was also published in a Nov 3, 2009 blog titled "What Do You Want Students To Do?" And it was published in an undated (Nov 2009) blog titled "Sedentary Runners." It was also published in a Nov 9, 2009 blog titled "Keep Your Health Club Members Coming Back By Allowing Them to Book Appointments Online." And it was published in a Nov 27, 2009 blog titled "Degrees of Presence IV: My experience." It was also published in a Dec 2, 2009 blog titled "Internet Linked to Intellect."

Continuing on, it was published again in a Dec 13, 2009 blog titled "Las ciudades del mundo más conectadas con Internet." It was also published in a Dec 14, 2009 German blog titled "Modisch immer Online auf MySpace Fashion." And it was published in a Dec 18, 2009 blog titled La primera red 4G del mundo se estrena en Suecia, whose URL Flickr is not allowing me to embed -- but it's www dot tuexperto dot com slash 2009/12/18/la-primera-red-4g-del-mundo-se-estrena-en-suecia/

Moving into 2010, the photo has been published in a Jan 5, 2010 Fast Company blog titled "What Women Want: Facebook Ads!", www-dot-fastcompany-dot-com/blog/maccabee-montandon/upswing/rise-fan-girls. And it was published in a Jan 11, 2010 blog titled "Caen las disqueras, sube la música." It was also published in a Jan 15, 2010 blog titled "School Lunches and 'Home' Work: Friday Finds." And it was published in a Jan 20, 2010 blog titled "Welcome to Mobility Hacks." It was also published in a Feb 2, 2010 blog titled "Thanks for Visiting." A week later, it was published in a Feb 9, 2010 blog titled "Większość polskich internautów korzysta z internetowych multimediów."

And the beat goes on: the photo was published in a Feb 17, 2010 blog titled "What does Matador mean to you?," as well as a Feb 17, 2010 Polish blog titled "Informacja stanie się walutą." On Feb 18, 2010 it was published in a blog titled "School uses laptop webcams to spy on students." And I discovered that it was published in an undated (Mar 2010) German blog titled "Einführung," which seems to provide an online service for Germans who want to learn to speak Italian. It was also published in a Mar 24, 2010 Mexican blog titled "Uso de software ilegal en el mundo." And it was published in an Apr 14, 2010 Italian blog titled "Le donne sfruttano il lato oscuro di Facebook," as well as an Apr 14, 2010 blog titled "10 Ways To Make The Most Of Your Laptop." About a week later, I found it on an undated (Apr 22, 2010?) blog titled "Ask the Readers: Your Favorite Online Resources." It was also published in an Apr 22, 2010 blog titled "The Evolution of a Blog." And it was published in an undated (Apr 2010) Mahalo-dot-com blog titled "Ask any question, any time." It was also published as an illustration in a May 12, 2010 Romanian(?) Gadgets blog, with the same title as the caption that I put on this Flickr page; and it was also published on May 12, 2010 in a blog titled "Definition of a Truly Mobile Job."

On May 17, 2010 the photo was published without any title or description on a Technologeek site. And on May 26, 2010, the photo was published in a Spanish blog titled "Buscar Pareja," and also a Norwegian blog titled "Her handler du best på nett." On May 30, 2010, it was published in a blog titled "What is the best laptop?." And on Jun 2, 2010 it was published in what appears to be a Polish blog, titled "Yahoo! grozi lokalnym mediom. Będzie walka o reklamodawców." It was also published in a Jun 10, 2010 Rent Laptop Computer blog, with a title that was a slightly bizarre variation on the caption that I used for this Flickr page: "ONE OF A SINGULAR NON-APPLE LAPTOPS SEEN IN AN DIFFERENTLY COLD PLAY GROUND FULL OF COLD PEOPLE."

On Jun 12, 2010, the photo was published in an Italian blog titled "Libri di donne: scarichiamoli gratis dalla rete." And on Jun 16, 2010 a cropped version of the photo was published in a Spanish blog titled "Encuentros en Sevilla: los mejores sitios para ligar." It was also published in a Jun 21,2010 FixALaptop blog titled "Where can I download a new free camera software for toshiba vista laptop?" And it was published in a Jun 23, 2010 blog titled " per unit community college fee gets some support." It was also published in two Jun 28, 2010 blogs" "Where to Write Out of the House," and "Why It’s So Easy to Spend Too Much Online." And it was published in a Jun 29, 2010 blog titled "What Women Want ... Online."

Moving into the second half of 2010, the photo was published in an undated (Jul 2010) blog titled "Study: Pro-Eating Disorder Sites Use Graphic Material to Encourage Anorexia, Bulimia." And it was published in a Jul 2, 2010 blog titled, "Do We Even Need Proper Food Critics?" It was also published in a Jul 7, 2010 Laptop PC Computers blog, with the same title as the caption that I used for this Flickr page. And it was published in a Jul 11, 2010 blog titled "Mute Teenager with Autism Finds Voice." It was also published in a Jul 15, 2010 blog titled "Facebook: A haven for cheaters?" And it was published in a Jul 22, 2010 blog titled " 7 Key Steps to Starting a Small Business Online TODAY!", as well as a Jul 23, 2010 blog titled "freelancer. ser ou não ser?" It was also published in a Jul 27, 2010 blog titled "Best Business Ideas for College Students." And it was published in an Aug 3, 2010 Computers & Electronics blog, with the same title as the caption that I used on this Flickr page, as well as an Aug 3, 2010 blog titled "No Link Between Social Media Use, Students’ Grades; Plus: Can Twitter Get You into College?" It was also published in an Aug 11, 2010 Buy Laptop Guide blog titled "apple laptop???????????????" as well as an Aug 11, 2010 blog titled "Why Aren't You Earning Your Online Psychology Degree?" It was also published in an Aug 12, 2010 blog titled "Sleep is for the Weak." And it was published in an Aug 16, 2010 blog titled "It's Time Once Again for Back to School Week." It was also published in an Aug 30, 2010 "Money Saving Mom" blog titled "10 Ways to Protect Your Identity Online," and an Aug 31, 2010 blog titled "Great Advice on Protecting Your Identity Online!!." And it was published in a Sep 7, 2010 blog titled "Strategies for Curating Online Reading Sources."

Okay, so now Labor Day has come and gone, and the publications continue on into the fall. On Sep 13, 2010 the photo was published in a blog titled "Continuing the Blogging for Money Conversation," as well as a Sep 13, 2010 blog titled "best five laptops with high configurations?" It was also published in a Sep 15, 2010 blog titled "Concurso de ensayo: España después de la crisis." And it was published in a Sep 18, 2010 blog titled "10 Must-Haves to Travel Nomadic." It was also published in a Sep 21, 2010 blog titled "AVODAH Introduces a New National Blog." And it was published in a Sep 24, 2010 blog titled "Five Helpful Travel Blogging Tips," as well as a Sep 24, 2010 blog titled "Laptop Reviews:How about getting free laptop with mobile phones?" and a Sep 24, 2010 blog titled "Laptop Reviews:Apple Macbook: Just Like We Wanted." It was also published in a Sep 30, 2010 blog titled "Prima di Comprare Ci Informiamo Su Internet, Sempre di Più," and a Sep 30, 2010 blog titled "SEO Copywriting Basics You Need to Know." It was also published in an Oct 8, 2010 blog titled "Online Masters’ Degree – What are the Subjects to opt for?"

Moving into the final two months of the year, the photo was published in a Nov 8, 2010 blog titled "Freelance Your Writing? Try Plr." And it was published in a Nov 10, 2010 Best Laptop for the Money blog, with the same title and detailed notes as what I had written here on this Flickr page. It was also published in a Nov 11, 2010 blog titled "Las relaciones de pareja y el trabajo," as well as a Nov 11, 2010 blog titled "Why You Should Start a Blog: Three Important Reasons to Consider." And it was published in a Nov 12,2010 blog with the curious title of "Overhating [sic] problem in laptops." It was also published in a Nov 17, 2010 blog titled "It's National Unfriend Day: Who Goes First?" And it was published in a Nov 18, 2010 Polish blog titled "100 Mb/s bez kabla od Polsatu. Będziemy mieli najlepszy Internet na świecie?," and another Nov 18, 2010 blog titled "La netiqueta." It was also published in a Nov 21, 2010 blog titled "Virtuelle Adventskalender." And i was published in an undated (late Nov 2010) blog titled "Different Methods to Work From Home and Make Money Online." It was also published in a Nov 26, 2010 Lifehacker blog titled "Planhacker: Best Occasional Use Prepaid 3G Broadband Deals," as well as a Nov 26, 2010 blog titled "Going Internet-Lite." And it was also published in a Nov 26, 2010 blog titled アメリカ旅行でも仕事環境を準備するお話。at linker.in/journal/2010/11/mobile-trip.php. It was also published as an illustration in an undated (late Nov 2010) Writer's World blog.

In the final month of 2010, the photo was published in a Dec 8, 2010 blog titled "The Brief History of Apple Laptops." It was also published in a Dec 9, 2010 blog titled "A Guide To Online Dating In New York City." And it was published in a Dec 10, 2010 Smookey blog with the same title and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. It was also published in a Dec 15, 2010 Dutch "Joop" blog titled "EU-surfer beter beschermd tegen ongewenste reclame." And it was published in a Dec 16, 2010 blog titled "mi date un sito per comprare online?" It was also published in a Dec 17, 2010 blog titled "Ma con POSTEPAY posso comprare nei negozi? o posso solo comprare su internet?" as well as another Dec 17, 2010 blog titled "What are tips on how to avoid players with online dating? What should I look for in the profile?" and yet another Dec 17, 2010 blog titled "Pranzare di fronte al computer fa mangiare di più." It was also published in an undated (late Dec 2010) blog titled "Q&A: mi potete cosigliare un sito per comprare trucchi, pennelli ecc online?" It was also published in a Dec 26, 2010 New Home Businesses blog, with the same title as the caption that I put on this Flickr page. And it was published in a Dec 29, 2010 blog titled "How An Entrepreneur Create New Products At Lightning Speed."

Moving into 2011, the photo was published in a Jan 2, 2011 blog titled "Q&A: how could i make money online free?", as well as a Jan 2, 2011 blog titled "How to know which SEO software suits your search engine optimization needs?" It was also published in a Jan 4, 2011 blog titled "Online Degrees: A More Affordable And Flexible Higher." And it was published in a Jan 5, 2011 blog titled "Legitimate Paid Surveys – How to Earn Money Online from Home Starting Today ." It was also published in a Jan 9, 2011 blog titled "ciao raga ho un amica che vorrebbe comprare un cell su e bay, sevondo voi e sicuro?" And it was published in an undated (Jan 2011) "Forward SIngles" blog, titled "Медиите за Forward Singles (3)." It was also published in a Jan 19, 2011 blog titled "Getting A Degree In Sports Marketing." And it was published in a Jan 21, 2011 blog titled " Evoquer publiquement sa réussite, ses revenus internet, ou pas…" It was also published in a Jan 27, 2011 blog titled "http://interaktywnie.com/biznes/newsy/domeny/home-pl-tworzy-gielde-domen-18993." And it was published in a Jan 30, 2011 blog titled "Q&A: do I have an eating disorder?"

The photo was also published in a Feb 3, 2011 blog titled "AWP 2011 Panel Post: How To Get Beyond “Using Social Media” & Become A Social Artist Instead." And it was published in a Feb 4, 2011 blog titled "Thanks for Visiting." It was also published in a Feb 7, 2011 blog titled "Consommation et Affirmation de soi : quand le numérique détrône l’automobile." And it was published in a Feb 8, 2011 blog titled "Zoosk To Lead Online Dating Space." It was also published in a Feb 15,2011 blog titled "Unable to meet enrollment goals, CSU may have to return state funds." And it was published in a Feb 18, 2011 blog titled "Google’s travel deal faces regulatory turbulence." It was also published in a Feb 19, 2011 blog titled "MIT Entrepreneurship Review: Designing Customer Surveys That Work: Focus On Value," with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. It was also published in a Feb 23, 2011 blog titled "Digitale bouwstenen." And it was published in a Feb 27, 2011 Eliminate Debt Working from Home blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. And it was published in an Apr 23, 2011 blog titled Laptop Reviews – Best Mini Laptop 2011

The photo was also published in a Mar 4, 2011 Chilean blog titled "10 formas de organizar mejor tu tiempo." And it was published in a Mar 5, 2011 blog titled "Local High School Uses Digital Textbooks." It was also published in a Mar 7, 2011 blog titled "La crisis dispara la tasa de ocupación de la mujer mayor de 45 años." And it was published in a Mar 11, 2011 blog titled "Une table ronde autour des tendances du eCommerce." It was also published in a Mar 14, 2011 PC Gadgiator blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. And it was published in a Mar 15, 2011 blog titled "New Cyberbullying Study Reveals that Students Bullying Are More Likely Insecure, Negative Towards Teachers." It was also published in a Mar 22, 2011 blog titled "How to Speak in German: 3 Unusual Facts for Beginners." And it was published in a Mar 24, 2011 blog titled "Cum abordezi o tipa pe Facebook."

Moving into the month of April, the photo was published in an Apr 7, 2011 blog titled "Download Sucker Punch Movie-The Story of A Young Courageous Girl." It was also published in an Apr 17, 2011 blog titled "Keeping JSP Development Alive." It was also published in an Apr 19, 2011 "Moscow News" article titled "Попались в женские сети." And it was published in an Apr 23, 2011 blog titled "Laptop Reviews – Best Mini Laptop 2011." It was also published in an Apr 27, 2011 blog titled "Planning For Content Delivery, Consumption and Context." And it was published in an Apr 28, 2011 blog titled "¿Eres una mujer PANK?" It was also published in a Jun 6, 2011 blog titled "This question is for bloggers who make money blogging?" And it was published in a Jun 9, 2011 blog titled "New York City Adds Free AT&T Wi-Fi to Public Parks."

It was also published in an undated (early Jul 2011) blog titled "Advantages of Online Degree Programs." And it was published in an undated (mid-Jul 2011) MagForWomen blog titled "Read This Before Getting Into An Online Relationship." It was also published in a Jul 18, 2011 blog titled "Is technology making us stupid?" And it was published in a Jul 28, 2011 blog titled "Back-To-School Laptops that Don't Sacrifice Quality for Cost." It was also published in a Jul 29, 2011 blog titled "Travel Blogger, una nuova professione?" And it was published in an Aug 10, 2011 blog titled "Russian Storybooks Good for Beginners Learning the Language?" It was also published in an Aug 11, 2011 blog titled "Study Reports More Girls than Boys Cyberbullied." And it was published in an Aug 26, 2011 blog titled "Social networking helps students perform better, professor says," as well as an Aug 26, 2011 blog titled "Los amores en tiempos de internet." And it was published in a Sep 17, 2011 blog titled "La etopeya personal." It was also published in an Oct 3, 2011 Cool Best New Technology Gadgets images blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. And it was published in an Oct 15, 2011 "Surviving College" blog titled "PROPERLY COMMUNICATING WITH YOUR PROFESSOR." It was also published in an Oct 21, 2011 blog titled "Disruptive News 21 Oktober 2011," and an Oct 21, 2011 blog titled "UC online instruction pilot sparks excitement, controversy." And it was published in a Nov 2, 2011 blog titled "Going Pro, at BlogWorld Expo 2011." It was also published in a Nov 22, 2011 blog titled "Virtuelle Adventskalender." And it was published in a Dec 9, 2011 blog titled "Es viernes ¿cuánto tiempo pasas conectado?

Moving into 2012, the photo was published in a Jan 2, 2012 blog titled "What would be the job title or the industry for these computer skills? , as well as a Jan 3, 2012 blog titled "looking for a part time job in west philadelphia pa?" It was also published in a Jan 9, 2012 blog titled "Personality Types and Blogging: How Personality May Affect Your Writing, as well as a Jan 12, 2012 blog titled "single mens in chicago, il? gonna moves there to start dating?" And it was published in a Feb 10, 2012 blog titled "Sleep Disorders News : 1800 – 2000 words regarding sleep disorders on insomnia. HUGE TASK ASSIGNMENT. HELP HELP!?

It was also published in a Feb 21, 2012 blog titled "If You Give a Gen-Y a Computer…" And it was published in a Mar 12, 2012 Fast Company blog titled "5 Tips To Retaining Star Gen Y Talent," at www-dot-fastcompany-dot-com/1823890/5-tips-to-retaining-star-gen-y-talent, as well as a Mar 20, 2012 blog titled "Le recrutement via les réseaux sociaux sera la tendance 2012 (étude Viadeo)." It was also published in an Apr 10, 2012 blog titled "The One Where I Turn Writer." And it was published in an Apr 14, 2012 blog titled "Are You Old Enough for Facebook?" It was also published in an Apr 27, 2012 blog titled "Nude Photo of Female Agoura High School Staffer Ends Up On Facebook." And it was published in a May 10, 2012 blog titled "Quiero ser Freelance ¿cómo empiezo?" It was also published in a May 17, 2012 blog titled "What Facebook Teaches Us About Time," as well as a May 30, 2012 blog titled "9 Studies That Show Women Rule Social Media." And it was published in a Jun 10, 2012 blog titled "Women's Studies Should Include High-Tech Mastery," as well as an undated (late Jun 2012) blog titled "La netiqueta."

In the final month of 2012, the photo was published in a blog titled "Does Twitter Improve Education?" And it was published in a Dec 6, 2012 blog titled "Single To SoulMate." It was also published in a Dec 7, 2012 blog titled "Do You Belong to an Online Community?" And it was published in a Dec 11, 2012 blog titled "漂流する彼女。 ," as well as a Dec 11, 2012 blog titled "Calling all Delaney cousins! It was also published in a Dec 12, 2012 blog titled "Status Changing Strain," as well as a Dec 12, 2012 blog titled "Sabies que… pots estudiar de franc a la Universitat de Harvard?", and also a Dec 12, 2012 blog titled "Buscar trabajo fuera de España como alternativa."

Fringe

Image by † Jimmy MacDonald †
Starring... Anna Torv as FBI Agent Olivia Dunham, Joshua Jackson as Peter Bishop, John Noble as Dr. Walter Bishop, Lance Reddick as Agent Phillip Broyles, Blair Brown as Nina Sharp, Jasika Nicole as Astrid Farnsworth,

Fringe is an American science fiction television series created by J. J. Abrams, Alex Kurtzman and Roberto Orci. The series follows a Federal Bureau of Investigation "Fringe Division" team based in Boston, Massachusetts under the supervision of Homeland Security. The team uses unorthodox "fringe" science and FBI investigative techniques to investigate a series of unexplained, often ghastly occurrences, which are related to mysteries surrounding a parallel universe. The show has been described as a hybrid of The X-Files, Altered States, The Twilight Zone and Dark Angel.[1][2]

The series premiered in North America on August 19, 2008, on the Fox network. Fringe was part of a Fox initiative known as "Remote-Free TV". Episodes of Fringe were longer than standard dramas on current network television. The show ran with half the commercials during the first season, adding about six minutes to the show's runtime.[3] When the show went to a commercial, a short bumper aired informing the viewer of roughly how much time commercials will consume before the program resumed. On October 1, 2008, Fringe's first season was extended to 22 episodes.[4] This was then cut back to 20 episodes with the season finale airing May 12.[5] The series was renewed for a second season.[6] Season 2 premiered September 18, 2009.[7] However, Fox's "Remote-Free TV" trial did not continue past the first season. On March 6, 2010, Entertainment Weekly and Variety reported that Fox had renewed Fringe for a third season;[8] it was later reported that it would be for a full 22 episodes.[9] The third season premiered September 23, 2010.[10]
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More about Fringe: On Wikipedia.
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For Photo of Prison Break Cast: Click Here...Photo of Prison Break Cast.
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For Photo of Lost Cast: Click Here... Photo of Lost Cast.
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My other Flickr Sites: Jimmy MacDonald [2] Jimmy MacDonald [3]

My Website: Jimmy MacDonald's Website

My YouTube Chanel: Jimmy MacDonald's YouTube

My Blog: Yahoo Profiles Blog

My Blog '2' BlogSpot.

My Flickr Group Photos: Christians in Prayer & Worship

Guestbook: View/Sign Guestbook

Photo Guestbook: View/Sign Photo Guestbook

____________________________________________________________________________

Anna Torv... Olivia Dunham (65 episodes, 2008-2011)
Joshua Jackson... Peter Bishop (65 episodes, 2008-2011)
Lance Reddick... Agent Phillip Broyles / ... (65 episodes, 2008-2011)
Blair Brown... Nina Sharp (65 episodes, 2008-2011)
Jasika Nicole... Astrid Farnsworth / ... (65 episodes, 2008-2011)
John Noble... Dr. Walter Bishop (65 episodes, 2008-2011)
Kirk Acevedo... Agent Charlie Francis / ... (30 episodes, 2008-2010)
Michael Cerveris... The Observer / ... (25 episodes, 2008-2010)
Mark Valley... John Scott (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Ari Graynor... Rachel / ... (10 episodes, 2009-2010)
Lily Pilblad... Ella / ... (10 episodes, 2009-2010)
Jacqueline Beaulieu... Nina's Assistant (10 episodes, 2008)
Sebastian Roché... Thomas Jerome Newton (8 episodes, 2009-2010)
Leonard Nimoy... Dr. William Bell / ... (7 episodes, 2009-2010)
Ryan Mcdonald... Brandon (6 episodes, 2009-2010)
Chance Kelly... Mitchell Loeb / ... (5 episodes, 2008-2009)
Darby Lynn Totten... Agent #2 / ... (5 episodes, 2008-2009)
Seth Gabel... Lincoln Lee (5 episodes, 2010)
Kevin Corrigan... Sam Weiss (4 episodes, 2009-2010)
Jared Harris... David Robert Jones (4 episodes, 2008-2009)
Michael Gaston... Sanford Harris (4 episodes, 2009)
Gerard Plunkett... Sen. Van Horn / ... (3 episodes, 2009-2010)
Ash Roeca... Agent Rodriguez / ... (3 episodes, 2008-2009)
Philip Winchester... Frank Stanton (3 episodes, 2010)
Ryan McDonald... Brandon / ... (3 episodes, 2010)
Clark Middleton... Edward Markham / ... (3 episodes, 2009-2010)
Stefan Arngrim... Store Owner (3 episodes, 2009-2010)
Eugene Lipinski... December (3 episodes, 2009-2010)
Karen Holness... Diane Broyles / ... (3 episodes, 2009-2010)
Matthew Martin... ND Agent / ... (3 episodes, 2008-2009)
Mig Macario... Tech / ... (3 episodes, 2010)
Roger R. Cross... Hybrid / ... (2 episodes, 2009)
Peter Woodward... August (2 episodes, 2009-2010)
Meghan Markle... Junior FBI Agent Amy Jessup (2 episodes, 2009)
Kenneth Tigar... Warden Johan Lennox (2 episodes, 2008-2009)
Trini Alvarado... Samantha Loeb (2 episodes, 2008-2009)
Chinasa Ogbuagu... Lloyd / ... (2 episodes, 2009)
Guiesseppe Jones... Agent #3 / ... (2 episodes, 2008-2009)
Douglas Chapman... Agent / ... (2 episodes, 2009-2010)
Chris Eastman... CSI Investigator (2 episodes, 2009)
Anna Van Hooft... Nina's Assistant (2 episodes, 2009)
Brian Slaten... Man #1 / ... (2 episodes, 2008-2009)
Chad Gittens... Agent #2 / ... (2 episodes, 2009)
Chris Shields... ND Agent / ... (2 episodes, 2009)
Jenni Blong... Dr. Carla Warren (2 episodes, 2010)
Orla Brady... Elizabeth Bishop (2 episodes, 2010)
Amy Madigan... Marilyn Dunham (2 episodes, 2010)
Omar Metwally... James Heath / ... (2 episodes, 2010)
David Call... Nick Lane (2 episodes, 2009-2010)
Marie Avgeropoulos... Leah / ... (2 episodes, 2010)
Hamza Adam... Deputy (2 episodes, 2010)
Diana Bang... Nora (2 episodes, 2010)
David Richmond-Peck... CSI Detective Kassel (2 episodes, 2010)
Silver Kim... Actor / ... (2 episodes, 2010)
Scott Patey... Stock Boy (2 episodes, 2010)
John Prowse... Corpse #2 / ... (2 episodes, 2010)
John Shaw... Medical Examiner (2 episodes, 2010)
Eve Harlow... Cashier (2 episodes, 2010)
Jamie Switch... Lloyd Becker (2 episodes, 2010)
Nelson Peña... Junior Agent / ... (2 episodes, 2009)
James Pizzinato... Dave (2 episodes, 2010)
Megan Leitch... Elaine (2 episodes, 2010)
Mary Alison Raine... Actor / ... (2 episodes, 2010)
Cam Cronin... Fbi Tech / ... (2 episodes, 2009-2010)
Robyn Payne... Agent / ... (2 episodes, 2009)
Alberta Mayne... Young Mother (2 episodes, 2010)
Al Miro... Neal (2 episodes, 2010)
Sierra Pitkin... Jordan (2 episodes, 2010)
David Shumbris... Man #1 / ... (2 episodes, 2008-2009)
Jennifer Butler... CSU Investigator (2 episodes, 2008)
Takako Haywood... FBI Agent (2 episodes, 2008)
Harry L. Seddon... Catatonic Mental Patient / ... (2 episodes, 2008)
Danny Doherty... Boston Fireman / ... (2 episodes, 2009-2010)
Alison Wandzura... Olivia Body Double / ... (2 episodes, 2010-2011)
Heather Doerksen... Assistant / ... (2 episodes, 2010)
Ryan James McDonald... Brandon (2 episodes, 2010)
Simon Raymond... Fringe Division Tech / ... (2 episodes, 2010)
Cameron K. Smith... Cab Driver (2 episodes, 2010)

Create a character page for:
Series Produced by
Jeff Pinkner.... executive producer (64 episodes, 2008-2011)
J.H. Wyman.... executive producer / co-executive producer (50 episodes, 2009-2011)
J.J. Abrams.... executive producer (46 episodes, 2008-2010)
Bryan Burk.... executive producer (46 episodes, 2008-2010)
Alex Kurtzman.... consulting producer / executive producer (46 episodes, 2008-2010)
Roberto Orci.... consulting producer / executive producer (46 episodes, 2008-2010)
Tamara Isaac.... co-producer / associate producer / ... (42 episodes, 2008-2010)
Robert M. Williams Jr..... producer (36 episodes, 2008-2010)
Tanya M. Swerling.... co-producer / associate producer / ... (31 episodes, 2009-2010)
Joe Chappelle.... co-executive producer / executive producer (25 episodes, 2009-2010)
Akiva Goldsman.... consulting producer (25 episodes, 2009-2010)
Kathy Lingg.... producer (25 episodes, 2009-2010)
Reid Shane.... supervising producer / co-executive producer (25 episodes, 2009-2010)
Josh Singer.... supervising producer / co-executive producer (25 episodes, 2009-2010)
David Wilcox.... co-executive producer (25 episodes, 2009-2010)
Ashley Miller.... producer (22 episodes, 2009-2010)
Zack Stentz.... producer (22 episodes, 2009-2010)
Jeff Vlaming.... supervising producer (22 episodes, 2009-2010)
David H. Goodman.... co-executive producer (20 episodes, 2008-2010)
Brad Kane.... co-producer (20 episodes, 2008-2010)
J.R. Orci.... supervising producer (20 episodes, 2008-2010)
Brooke Kennedy.... co-executive producer (16 episodes, 2008-2010)
Fred Toye.... producer (14 episodes, 2008-2010)
Jason Cahill.... consulting producer (11 episodes, 2008-2009)
Felicia D. Henderson.... co-executive producer (11 episodes, 2008-2009)
John Litvack.... consulting producer (11 episodes, 2008-2009)
Darin Morgan.... consulting producer (11 episodes, 2008-2009)
Andrew Kreisberg.... co-executive producer (7 episodes, 2009-2010)
Brad Anderson.... producer (5 episodes, 2009-2010)
Paul A. Edwards.... producer (4 episodes, 2008)
Monica Breen.... co-executive producer (3 episodes, 2010)
Alison Schapker.... co-executive producer (3 episodes, 2010)
Vladimir Stefoff.... co-producer (3 episodes, 2010)
Athena Wickham.... co-producer (3 episodes, 2010)

Series Original Music by
Michael Giacchino (44 episodes, 2008-2010)
Chris Tilton (24 episodes, 2009-2010)

Series Cinematography by
Tom Yatsko (24 episodes, 2008-2010)
David Moxness (11 episodes, 2009-2010)
Fred Murphy (5 episodes, 2009-2010)
Michael Slovis (4 episodes, 2009)

Series Film Editing by
Jon Dudkowski (14 episodes, 2008-2010)
Luyen H. Vu (10 episodes, 2009-2010)
Scott Vickrey (7 episodes, 2008-2009)
Timothy A. Good (7 episodes, 2010-2011)
Tanya M. Swerling (5 episodes, 2008-2009)
Henk Van Eeghen (4 episodes, 2009-2010)
Michelle Tesoro (3 episodes, 2010)

Series Casting by
April Webster (24 episodes, 2008-2010)
Sara Isaacson (22 episodes, 2010-2011)
Ross Meyerson (14 episodes, 2008-2010)
Julie Tucker (14 episodes, 2008-2010)
Cindy Tolan (7 episodes, 2008)

Series Production Design by
Ian D. Thomas (44 episodes, 2009-2011)
Steven J. Jordan (14 episodes, 2008-2010)
Anne Stuhler (6 episodes, 2008)
Carol Spier (2 episodes, 2008)

Series Art Direction by
Peter Andringa (17 episodes, 2009-2010)
Randall Richards (3 episodes, 2008)
Roswell Hamrick (2 episodes, 2008)

Series Set Decoration by
Beth Kushnick (20 episodes, 2008-2010)
Louise Roper (20 episodes, 2009-2010)
Justin Papp (18 episodes, 2008-2009)
Bobbi Allyn (3 episodes, 2010)

Series Costume Design by
Jenni Gullett (23 episodes, 2009-2010)
Marie Abma (20 episodes, 2008-2010)
Joanna Brett (2 episodes, 2008)

Series Makeup Department
Ian C. Ballard.... department head hair / department head hair stylist / ... (23 episodes, 2009-2010)
Kymbra C. Kelley.... makeup department head / department head make-up (20 episodes, 2008-2010)
Dana Hamel.... department head make-up / department head makeup (20 episodes, 2009-2010)
Kymbra Callaghan.... makeup department head (18 episodes, 2008-2009)
Anne-Michelle Radcliffe.... hair department head / department head hair (16 episodes, 2008-2010)
Todd Masters.... special effects makeup designer / special effects makeup / ... (16 episodes, 2009-2010)
Stephen Kelley.... makeup effects designer / special makeup effects artist (8 episodes, 2008-2009)
Calla Syna Dreyer.... assistant makeup artist / department head makeup / ... (8 episodes, 2009-2010)
Amanda Kuryk.... assistant makeup artist / first assistant makeup artist / ... (8 episodes, 2010)
Louie Zakarian.... special makeup effects artist / special effects makeup designer (7 episodes, 2009-2010)
Stephen G. Bishop.... department head hair (4 episodes, 2008)
Rachel Griffin.... special makeup effects artist / makeup artist (4 episodes, 2010)
Andy Clement.... special makeup effects designer/creator (2 episodes, 2009)
Craig Lindberg.... additional makeup effects (2 episodes, 2009)
Lancel Reyes.... special makeup effects artist (2 episodes, 2009)
Kathleen P. Campbell.... first assistant hair stylist (2 episodes, 2010)
Mariah Crawley.... second assistant hair stylist (2 episodes, 2010)
Angela Wood.... first assistant makeup artist (2 episodes, 2010)


Neil Morrill.... special makeup effects artist (unknown episodes)

Series Production Management
Robert M. Williams Jr..... unit production manager (36 episodes, 2008-2010)
Andrew Balek.... post-production supervisor (28 episodes, 2008-2010)
John Klump.... post-production supervisor (23 episodes, 2008-2010)
Vladimir Stefoff.... production manager (20 episodes, 2009-2010)
Amanda Lencioni.... post-production supervisor (14 episodes, 2009-2010)
Dana J. Kuznetzkoff.... unit production manager / unit production manager: NY (6 episodes, 2008)
Brian Moraga.... post-production supervisor (6 episodes, 2010)
April Nocifora.... post-production supervisor (6 episodes, 2010)
Michael C. Young.... production manager (3 episodes, 2009)
Jill Risk.... post-production supervisor (3 episodes, 2010)
Daniel Rodriguez.... post-production supervisor (2 episodes, 2008)

Series Second Unit Director or Assistant Director
Brian Giddens.... first assistant director (11 episodes, 2009-2010)
Warren Hanna.... second assistant director (11 episodes, 2009-2010)
Vadim Epstein.... second second assistant director (10 episodes, 2009)
Brent Crowell.... first assistant director: second unit / first assistant director (9 episodes, 2009-2010)
Greg Zenon.... first assistant director (9 episodes, 2009-2010)
Amy Lynn.... second assistant director (8 episodes, 2008-2009)
Gary S. Rake.... first assistant director (8 episodes, 2008-2009)
David R. Baron.... second assistant director (8 episodes, 2009-2010)
Patrick Mangan.... second assistant director (7 episodes, 2008-2010)
Marcos González Palma.... second assistant director: second unit / second second assistant director (7 episodes, 2008-2009)
Colin MacLellan.... first assistant director (7 episodes, 2008-2009)
Thomas Tobin.... assistant director: second unit / second second assistant director (7 episodes, 2008)
Cole Boughton.... trainee assistant director (7 episodes, 2009-2010)
Tim Whyte.... second second assistant director / third assistant director / ... (7 episodes, 2009-2010)
Joshua Lucido.... dga trainee (6 episodes, 2008)
Tammy Tamkin.... second assistant director: second unit / third assistant director: second unit (6 episodes, 2009-2010)
Sarah Rae Garrett.... second assistant director / second assistant director: NY (5 episodes, 2008-2009)
Christo Morse.... first assistant director (3 episodes, 2008)
John E. Gallagher.... first assistant director (3 episodes, 2009-2010)
Karin Behrenz.... third assistant director (2 episodes, 2010)
Katherine Keizer.... second assistant director (2 episodes, 2010)


Adam Bocknek.... third assistant director (unknown episodes)
Patrick Murphy.... third assistant director (unknown episodes)

Series Art Department
Gavin De West.... assistant property master / on-set props (26 episodes, 2009-2011)
Michael Love.... props / props buyer (23 episodes, 2009-2010)
Robert K. Smith.... property master (23 episodes, 2009-2010)
John Wilcox.... paint coordinator (23 episodes, 2009-2010)
Justin Papp.... on-set dresser (20 episodes, 2008-2010)
Kaem Coughlin.... camera scenic artist (20 episodes, 2008-2009)
Judy Gurr.... assistant set decorator (20 episodes, 2008-2009)
Emily Gaunt.... charge scenic artist (19 episodes, 2008-2009)
Anya Lebow.... set dresser (19 episodes, 2008-2009)
Bentley Wood.... on-set property assistant / first property assistant / ... (19 episodes, 2008-2009)
Paula R. Montgomery.... set decoration buyer (16 episodes, 2009-2010)
Theresa Gonzalez.... scenic industrial (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Michael D. Harrell.... assistant property master (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Matthew Rignanese.... art department (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Peter Gelfman.... property master (12 episodes, 2008-2009)
Robin McAllister.... assistant property master (12 episodes, 2008-2009)
Natalie N. Dorset.... property master / props (10 episodes, 2008-2010)
Robert Zorella.... art department coordinator (10 episodes, 2008)
Jeremy Rosenstein.... assistant art director (9 episodes, 2008-2009)
Holly Watson.... graphic artist (9 episodes, 2008)
Kyle Salvatore.... assistant property master (8 episodes, 2009)
Robert Ludemann.... additional graphic artist (7 episodes, 2008-2009)
Michael Dundas.... scenic artist (7 episodes, 2009)
Victoria Stewart.... art department assistant (6 episodes, 2008)
Clare Davis.... construction coordinator (6 episodes, 2009-2010)
Eliza Hooker.... set dresser (6 episodes, 2010)
Sylvia Trapanese.... scenic foreman (5 episodes, 2008)
Vincent Accardi.... construction coordinator (4 episodes, 2008)
William Stenzel.... construction foreman (4 episodes, 2008)
Tara Boccia.... props (4 episodes, 2009)
Kevin L. Raper.... additional graphic artist (3 episodes, 2009)
James V. Kent.... assistant property master (2 episodes, 2008)
Lisa Kent.... assistant set decorator (2 episodes, 2008)
Randall Richards.... assistant art director (2 episodes, 2008)
Cathie Hahnel.... graphic artist / graphic design: art department (2 episodes, 2009-2010)
Tessa Brophy.... art department coordinator (2 episodes, 2009)
Chris Andreas.... set decorating coordinator (2 episodes, 2010)
Alistair Bell.... carpenter (2 episodes, 2010)
Todd Brooks.... buyer (2 episodes, 2010)
Lisa Canzi.... art department coordinator (2 episodes, 2010)
Sierra Laflamme.... on-set dresser (2 episodes, 2010)
Bob Levesque.... assistant property master (2 episodes, 2010)
Sergio Mattei.... lead dresser (2 episodes, 2010)
Mark Morgan.... lead dresser (2 episodes, 2010)
Eric Partridge.... props (2 episodes, 2010)
Brent Russell.... assistant set decorator (2 episodes, 2010)
Rob Schwenk.... foreman (2 episodes, 2010)
Jerry Staar.... assistant props (2 episodes, 2010)

Series Sound Department
Rick Norman.... re-recording mixer / sound re-recording mixer (26 episodes, 2009-2010)
Thomas A. Harris.... supervising sound editor (23 episodes, 2008-2010)
Eric Batut.... sound mixer (23 episodes, 2009-2010)
Paul Curtis.... supervising sound editor (23 episodes, 2009-2010)
Bruce Tanis.... sound effects designer / sound effects editor / ... (23 episodes, 2009-2010)
Larry Hoff.... sound mixer (20 episodes, 2008-2010)
Kyle Billingsley.... foley mixer (20 episodes, 2008-2009)
Michael Ferdie.... sound editor (20 episodes, 2008-2009)
Nick Neutra.... foley supervisor (20 episodes, 2008-2009)
Tom E. Dahl.... sound re-recording mixer / re-recording mixer (19 episodes, 2008-2009)
Mark D. Fleming.... sound re-recording mixer / re-recording mixer (19 episodes, 2008-2009)
David Long.... audio layback (18 episodes, 2008-2009)
Mark Hensley.... re-recording mixer (17 episodes, 2009-2010)
Deron Street.... first assistant sound editor (16 episodes, 2008-2010)
Michael Fowler.... adr recordist (16 episodes, 2008-2009)
Cynthia Merrill.... foley artist (16 episodes, 2008-2009)
Douglas Murray.... adr mixer (16 episodes, 2008-2009)
Jason Oliver.... adr mixer / sound recordist (13 episodes, 2008-2010)
Gabrielle Gilbert Reeves.... dialogue editor (12 episodes, 2008-2009)
Bob Kellough.... sound effects editor (12 episodes, 2008-2009)
Mark DeSimone.... adr mixer: New York (11 episodes, 2008-2009)
Beauxregard Neylon.... adr mixer (11 episodes, 2008-2009)
Daniel Brennan.... adr mixer (8 episodes, 2008-2009)
Christopher B. Reeves.... dialogue editor (7 episodes, 2008-2009)
John Guentner.... foley cueing / foley mixer assistant (7 episodes, 2009)
Brian Harman.... re-recording mixer / sound re-recording mixer (7 episodes, 2010)
Stephen Fitzmaurice.... adr mixer (5 episodes, 2008-2010)
Steffan Falesitch.... sound editor (5 episodes, 2008-2009)
Scott Cannizzaro.... adr mixer (5 episodes, 2009-2010)
Daniel McIntosh.... sound mixer: tandem unit (4 episodes, 2008)
Amanda Jacques.... utility (3 episodes, 2008-2009)
Noah Timan.... additional sound mixer (3 episodes, 2008-2009)
Richard Partlow.... foley artist (3 episodes, 2009-2010)
Mark Allen.... sound effects editor (3 episodes, 2010)
Shelley Roden.... foley artist (3 episodes, 2010)
James Bailey.... foley artist (2 episodes, 2008)
Paul Tirone.... adr mixer / adr recordist (2 episodes, 2008)
Marc Meyer.... sound effects editor (2 episodes, 2009-2010)
Bobby Roelofs.... sound utility (2 episodes, 2009)
Steven J. Rogers.... production sound mixer: second unit / sound: second unit (2 episodes, 2009)
Danny Duperrault.... boom operator (2 episodes, 2010)
Eric Justen.... sound re-recording mixer (2 episodes, 2010)


Sean Paul Armstrong.... second boom operator (unknown episodes)
Alan Zielonko.... boom operator (unknown episodes)

Series Special Effects by
Bob Comer.... special effects coordinator (23 episodes, 2009-2010)
Douglas W. Beard.... special effects designer (20 episodes, 2009-2010)
Conrad V. Brink Jr..... special effects coordinator (14 episodes, 2008-2010)
Harry Tomsic.... fabricator/welder (2 episodes, 2010)

Series Visual Effects by
Jay Worth.... visual effects supervisor: Los Angeles / visual effects supervisor / ... (43 episodes, 2008-2010)
Chris Wright.... visual effects producer (39 episodes, 2008-2010)
Rodrigo Dorsch.... digital compositor: Zoic Studios / lead compositor: Zoic Studios (35 episodes, 2008-2010)
Lee Gabel.... matchmove artist / match move artist / ... (34 episodes, 2008-2010)
Davy Nethercutt.... digital compositor (31 episodes, 2008-2010)
Johnathan R. Banta.... lead compositor / digital compositor / ... (29 episodes, 2008-2010)
Robert Habros.... visual effects supervisor: Vancouver (23 episodes, 2009-2010)
Christopher Scollard.... visual effects supervisor / visual effects supervisor: New York / ... (20 episodes, 2008-2010)
Jake Braver.... visual effects assistant / additional visual effects supervisor (20 episodes, 2008-2009)
Christopher Lance.... digital compositor: CoSA VFX (16 episodes, 2009-2010)
Tom Mahoney.... digital compositor: CoSA VFX (16 episodes, 2009-2010)
David Beedon.... digital effects artist: CoSA VFX (15 episodes, 2009-2010)
Jon Tanimoto.... digital compositor: CoSA VFX (15 episodes, 2009-2010)
Paul Le Blanc.... computer graphics playback (14 episodes, 2008-2009)
Michael Kirylo.... lead cgi artist (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Jason Sax.... visual effects coordinator (11 episodes, 2010)
Scott Dewis.... cgi supervisor: Race Rocks Digital / CGI supervisor: Race Rocks Digital [ca] (10 episodes, 2008)
Ben Campanaro.... compositor: Eden FX / rotoscope artist: Eden FX (9 episodes, 2009-2010)
Stefan Bredereck.... visual effects compositor: EdenFX / visual effects and animation: EdenFX / ... (8 episodes, 2009-2010)
Ido Banai.... digital compositor (7 episodes, 2008)
Fred Pienkos.... digital compositor (7 episodes, 2009-2010)
Eric Hance.... visual effects artist (6 episodes, 2009-2010)
Edward M. Ruiz II.... digital compositor: Eden FX / rotoscope artist: Eden FX / ... (6 episodes, 2010)
Andrew Orloff.... vfx supervisor: Zoic Studios (5 episodes, 2008-2009)
Dave Zeevalk.... digital effects artist / digital artist: Zoic Studios (5 episodes, 2008-2009)
Stephen W. Pugh.... visual effects producer: EdenFX (5 episodes, 2009)
Ilan Gabai.... digital effects artist (4 episodes, 2008-2009)
Matt Rosenfeld.... lighting lead / visual effects artist (4 episodes, 2008-2009)
Craig Edwards.... digital effects artist: EdenFX (4 episodes, 2009-2010)
Adica Manis.... visual effects producer: Pixomondo (4 episodes, 2010)
Ricardo Nadu.... rigger: Zoic Studios (3 episodes, 2008)
Lars Simkins.... visual effects artist / matte artist (3 episodes, 2009-2010)
Eric Haas.... digital effects artist: EdenFX (3 episodes, 2009)
John Karner.... visual effects (3 episodes, 2009)
Jeffrey I. Kaplan.... visual effects artist: Eden FX (3 episodes, 2010)
Jesse Siglow.... compositor (2 episodes, 2008-2009)
Charles Bunnag.... digital matte artist (2 episodes, 2008)
Marlon Perez.... digital artist (2 episodes, 2008)
Levi Ahmu.... visual effects artist (2 episodes, 2009)
Tim Matney.... matte painter (2 episodes, 2009)
Matthew Collorafice.... digital compositor (2 episodes, 2010)
Charles Collyer.... digital compositor (2 episodes, 2010)
Jason Hearne.... visual effects artist (2 episodes, 2010)
Mark Hennessy-Barrett.... visual effects artist (2 episodes, 2010)
Scott Kingston.... visual effects producer (2 episodes, 2010)
Chris Montesano.... visual effects artist (2 episodes, 2010)
Jose Perez.... visual effects artist (2 episodes, 2010)
John J. Renzulli.... digital compositor (2 episodes, 2010)
Derek Serra.... visual effects artist (2 episodes, 2010)
John Vanderbeck.... digital compositor (2 episodes, 2010)


Kristen Branan.... head of production: Zoic Studios (unknown episodes)
Jon Dudkowski.... visual effects editor (unknown episodes)
Joseph Ngo.... systems administrator (unknown episodes)
Ricardo Quintero.... digital compositor (unknown episodes)
Tefft Smith.... digital artist (unknown episodes)
Sean Tompkins.... visual effects coordinator (unknown episodes)

Series Stunts
Shauna Duggins.... stunt coordinator / stunt double: Anna Torv (21 episodes, 2008-2010)
Mike Mitchell.... stunt coordinator (20 episodes, 2009-2010)
Mike Burke.... stunt driver / stunt double / ... (8 episodes, 2008-2009)
David Shumbris.... stunts / stunt double (6 episodes, 2008-2009)
Roy Farfel.... stunt driver (5 episodes, 2008-2009)
Maja Stace-Smith.... stunt double: Anna Torv / stunt performer: nurse (5 episodes, 2010)
Jared Burke.... stunt double / stunts (4 episodes, 2008-2009)
Joanne Lamstein.... stunt performer / stunt double: Blair Brown / ... (4 episodes, 2008-2009)
Ian Mclaughlin.... key stunt rigger / stunt double / ... (4 episodes, 2008-2009)
Luis Moco.... stunt performer (4 episodes, 2008-2009)
Gene Harrison.... stunts / stunt performer (3 episodes, 2008-2009)
Donald John Hewitt.... stunts (3 episodes, 2008-2009)
Cort Hessler.... stunt coordinator / stunts (3 episodes, 2009)
Rick Pearce.... stunt coordinator (3 episodes, 2010)
Caroline Leppanen.... stunt double / stunts (2 episodes, 2008-2009)
Christopher Place.... stunt double / stunts (2 episodes, 2008-2009)
Rob Hayter.... stunt double: Stephen McHattie / stunt performer (2 episodes, 2009-2010)
Chad Hessler.... stunts (2 episodes, 2009)
Chad Sayn.... stunt rigger (2 episodes, 2009)
Atlin Mitchell.... stunt double: Anna Torv (2 episodes, 2010)


Bryan Renfro.... stunt driver (unknown episodes, 2008)
Jere Gillis.... stunt driver (unknown episodes)
Blair Johannes.... stunt double: Mark Valley (unknown episodes)
Danny Lima.... stunts (unknown episodes)
John MacDonald.... stunt performer (unknown episodes)
Ken Quinn.... stunt coordinator (unknown episodes)
Branko Racki.... stunt performer (unknown episodes)
Robert Racki.... utility stunts (unknown episodes)
Steve 'Shack' Shackleton.... stunt driver (unknown episodes)
Al Vrkljan.... stunt driver (unknown episodes)

Series Camera and Electrical Department
David S. Warner.... gaffer (25 episodes, 2009-2010)
David J. Dawson.... key grip (23 episodes, 2009-2010)
Scott Wallace.... video playback operator (23 episodes, 2009-2010)
Philip Gleason.... video playback operator (20 episodes, 2008-2010)
Tim Guinness.... gaffer (20 episodes, 2008-2010)
Cesar Baptista.... dolly grip (20 episodes, 2008-2009)
Christopher Tammaro.... camera operator: "a" camera (20 episodes, 2009-2010)
Sal Lanza.... key grip (18 episodes, 2008-2010)
Denny Kortze.... second assistant camera: "a" camera / first assistant camera: 2nd unit / ... (17 episodes, 2008-2009)
Jeff Muhlstock.... camera operator / steadicam operator / ... (17 episodes, 2008-2009)
Ed Nessen.... first assistant camera: "b" camera (17 episodes, 2008-2009)
Meg Kettell.... second assistant camera: "b" camera (16 episodes, 2008-2009)
Andre Gheorghiu.... motion picture video coordinator (15 episodes, 2009-2010)
Mark Lunn.... assistant camera / first assistant camera / ... (15 episodes, 2009-2010)
Prem Marimuthu.... lighting technician (14 episodes, 2009-2010)
Tim McAuliffe.... rigging gaffer (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Jon Jovellanos.... best boy grip: second unit (13 episodes, 2009-2010)
Ryan McMaster.... director of photography: second unit (13 episodes, 2009-2010)
Andrew Priestley.... first assistant camera (12 episodes, 2008-2009)
Max Torroba.... computer/video playback coordinator / playback coordinator (9 episodes, 2009-2010)
Edward Hohman.... dolly grip: 2nd unit (7 episodes, 2009)
Ted Goodwin.... electric / grip (6 episodes, 2008)
Nick Maczka.... grip (6 episodes, 2009)
Chris Drechsler.... lighting technician (5 episodes, 2008-2009)
Michael Fuchs.... camera production assistant (5 episodes, 2008-2009)
Steve Drellich.... camera operator: "b" camera (5 episodes, 2008)
Andrew Voegeli.... b camera / steadicam operator (5 episodes, 2009)
Saade Mustafa.... second unit: camera operator (4 episodes, 2008-2009)
Peter McEntyre.... rigging gaffer (4 episodes, 2008)
Lou Gruzelier.... steadicam operator / Steadicam operator / ... (4 episodes, 2009-2010)
Stephen Girouard.... grip (4 episodes, 2009)
Daniel Luebke.... electrician (4 episodes, 2009)
Jacob Bond.... lighting technician (4 episodes, 2010)
Phil Oetiker.... camera operator (3 episodes, 2008-2009)
Donald Russell.... additional camera operator / camera operator: second unit (3 episodes, 2009)
Edward Herrera.... camera production assistant (2 episodes, 2008)
Douglas Pellegrino.... additional camera operator (2 episodes, 2008)
Virgile Dean.... grip (2 episodes, 2009-2010)
Doug Brantner.... lighting technician (2 episodes, 2009)
David A. Erickson.... electrician (2 episodes, 2009)
Christopher B. Green.... first assistant camera / first assistant camera: "b" camera (2 episodes, 2009)
Pieter Reyneke.... lighting technician (2 episodes, 2009)
Daniel D. Sariano.... assistant camera (2 episodes, 2009)
Jennifer Scarlata.... electrician (2 episodes, 2009)
John C. Walker.... camera trainee (2 episodes, 2009)
Bruce Crawford.... best boy grip (2 episodes, 2010)
Nazim Edeer.... second assistant camera: "b" camera (2 episodes, 2010)
Katie Matheson.... loader (2 episodes, 2010)
Craig Munroe.... dolly grip: "a" camera (2 episodes, 2010)
Geoff Preston.... lamp operator (2 episodes, 2010)
Tobias Sarin.... first assistant camera: "b" camera (2 episodes, 2010)
Kevin Stachow.... generator operator (2 episodes, 2010)
Chris Stigter.... rigging gaffer (2 episodes, 2010)
James Warner.... best boy (2 episodes, 2010)
Mark Weinhaupl.... second assistant camera: "a" camera (2 episodes, 2010)
Jason Tidsbury.... light balloon technician (2 episodes, 2011)


Darren Spriet.... camera loader (unknown episodes)
Dean Stinchcombe.... first assistant camera (unknown episodes)
John Sztejnmiler.... generator operator (unknown episodes)
Franco Tata.... gaffer (unknown episodes)

Series Casting Department
Stephanie R. Hunter.... extras casting associate (19 episodes, 2008-2009)
April Webster.... original casting (18 episodes, 2008-2010)
Corinne Clark.... casting: Canada (17 episodes, 2009-2010)
Jennifer Page.... casting: Canada (17 episodes, 2009-2010)
Tiffany Moon.... extras casting director (16 episodes, 2008-2009)
Maria Higgins.... casting associate (13 episodes, 2008-2010)
Sara Isaacson.... casting associate (9 episodes, 2009-2010)
Rori Bergman.... casting associate (7 episodes, 2008)
Jaye Riske.... casting associate (6 episodes, 2009-2010)
Michelle Allen.... casting: Canada (6 episodes, 2009)
Luis Sanchez-Cañete.... extras casting / extras casting director (4 episodes, 2008)

Series Costume and Wardrobe Department
Heather Rupert.... costume dyer/breakdown (21 episodes, 2009-2010)
Audrey Wong.... costume set supervisor / set supervisor (19 episodes, 2009-2010)
Careen Fowles.... costume supervisor (16 episodes, 2008-2009)
Danielle Rice.... costume department intern (15 episodes, 2008-2009)
Kurtis Reeves.... prep costumer/buyer (14 episodes, 2009-2010)
Jessica Pitcairn.... costume coordinator (11 episodes, 2008-2009)
Amela Baksic.... assistant costume designer (10 episodes, 2008-2009)
Rachel Leek.... key costumer (8 episodes, 2008-2009)
Carmia Marshall.... key costumer / set costumer (8 episodes, 2008-2009)
Stephani Lewis.... costume coordinator (8 episodes, 2008)
Lisa Padovani.... associate costume designer (5 episodes, 2008-2009)
Debbe DuPerrieu.... set costumer (4 episodes, 2009-2010)
Thomas M. Smalley.... additional wardrobe (4 episodes, 2009)
Tina Ulee.... second costumer (4 episodes, 2009)
Natalie Arango.... key set costumer (3 episodes, 2008)
Shane Deschamps.... costume supervisor / set costumer (3 episodes, 2009)
Barrett Hong.... wardrobe supervisor (3 episodes, 2009)
Derek Moreno.... set costumer (2 episodes, 2008)
Jessica Costa.... costume coordinator (2 episodes, 2010)
Kevin Knight.... assistant costume designer (2 episodes, 2010)
Clare McLaren.... truck costumer (2 episodes, 2010)
Maria Waterman.... background costumer (2 episodes, 2010)


Nadia 'Sunny' Sorge.... background costume supervisor: pilot episode (unknown episodes)

Series Editorial Department
Tyson Hilgenberg.... post-production coordinator (39 episodes, 2008-2010)
Chad Rubel.... assistant editor / first assistant editor (19 episodes, 2008-2010)
Elizabeth Barnette.... assistant editor (7 episodes, 2009-2010)
Jennifer Van Goethem.... assistant editor (7 episodes, 2009-2010)
Lisa De Moraes.... assistant editor (6 episodes, 2008-2010)
Joshua Alan Baca.... online editor (5 episodes, 2008-2009)
Luyen H. Vu.... assistant editor (5 episodes, 2008-2009)

Series Music Department
Charles Scott IV.... music supervisor (63 episodes, 2008-2011)
Paul Apelgren.... music editor (44 episodes, 2008-2010)
J.J. Abrams.... composer: main title theme / composer: theme music (43 episodes, 2008-2010)
Billy Gottlieb.... music supervisor (41 episodes, 2008-2010)
Stephen M. Davis.... music editor (20 episodes, 2008-2010)
Chad Seiter.... composer: additional music (19 episodes, 2008-2009)
Chris Tilton.... composer: additional music (10 episodes, 2009)
Dan Wallin.... score engineer (6 episodes, 2008)
Michael Aarvold.... music scoring mixer (2 episodes, 2009)

Series Transportation Department
Larry Tardif.... transportation captain / camera car driver (8 episodes, 2009-2010)
Mike Zosiuk.... transportation security captain (5 episodes, 2010)


Gord Bettles.... picture car mechanic (unknown episodes)

Series Other crew
Andrew Kramer.... main title design / title designer / ... (40 episodes, 2008-2010)
Mindy Stevenson.... accounting auditor (34 episodes, 2008-2010)
Amy D'Alessandro.... titles / titles by (31 episodes, 2008-2010)
Cole Boughton.... key production assistant / production assistant (22 episodes, 2009-2010)
Scott Walden.... location manager (22 episodes, 2009-2010)
Nathaniel Moher.... assistant production coordinator / second assistant production coordinator (22 episodes, 2010-2011)
Graham Roland.... executive story editor (22 episodes, 2010-2011)
Yuell Newsome.... stock librarian (20 episodes, 2008-2009)
Diego Daniel Pardo.... on set dialect coach (19 episodes, 2008-2009)
Erika Goldfarb.... assistant production office coordinator (18 episodes, 2008-2009)
Bill Burns.... location scout (18 episodes, 2009-2010)
Jeffrey A. Brown.... assistant location manager (17 episodes, 2008-2009)
Talia Mayer.... location coordinator (17 episodes, 2008-2009)
Kerry Roberts.... payroll accountant (17 episodes, 2008-2009)
Lynn H. Powers.... location manager (16 episodes, 2008-2010)
Rob Coleman.... location scout (16 episodes, 2008-2009)
Rachel A. Gibson.... assistant accountant (16 episodes, 2008-2009)
Justin Kron.... location scout (16 episodes, 2008-2009)
Amy Meisner.... set production assistant / staff production assistant / ... (16 episodes, 2008-2009)
Matthew H. Wiesner.... location scout (16 episodes, 2008-2009)
Suzanne Clements-Smith.... assistant accountant (16 episodes, 2009-2010)
Shabazz Ray.... stand-in: Lance Reddick (15 episodes, 2008-2009)
Krista Huppert.... payroll assistant / payroll: crew (15 episodes, 2009-2010)
Malissa Katrynuk.... location scout (14 episodes, 2009-2010)
Stephen Ananicz.... set production assistant / production assistant (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Gjustina Dushku.... production assistant (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Rosa Garces.... second assistant accountant (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Jesse Hove.... location assistant (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Colby Knapp.... key second assistant accountant (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
James Parsons.... production assistant (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Vince Robinette.... production accountant (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Jamie Vermilye.... location assistant (13 episodes, 2008-2009)
Garnett Humenick.... craft service (13 episodes, 2009-2010)
Tom Teotico.... location scout (13 episodes, 2009-2010)
Dhana Rivera.... production coordinator (12 episodes, 2008-2009)
Nora Zuckerman.... staff writer (12 episodes, 2009-2010)
Josh Arnoudse.... production assistant (11 episodes, 2008-2009)
Ramón Rodríguez.... first accountant / first assistant accountant (11 episodes, 2008-2009)
Alexandra La Roche.... script supervisor (11 episodes, 2009-2010)
Max Torroba.... playback coordinator / computer/video playback coordinator (11 episodes, 2009-2010)
Lindsey Lefkow.... production secretary (10 episodes, 2008-2009)
Bonny Northcott.... trainee assistant location manager / assistant: location manager / ... (10 episodes, 2009-2010)
Sonja Beck Gingerich.... location assistant (9 episodes, 2008-2009)
Christopher M. Lewis.... office production assistant (9 episodes, 2008)
Rachel Connors.... script supervisor (9 episodes, 2009-2010)
Patti Henderson.... script supervisor (9 episodes, 2009-2010)
Shayne A. Wilson.... assistant production coordinator / first assistant production coordinator (9 episodes, 2009-2010)
Chris Farrow.... production assistant (8 episodes, 2008-2009)
Suk Yi Mar.... assistant location manager (8 episodes, 2008-2009)
Jacob Silver.... location unit assistant (8 episodes, 2008)
Tyler Scott.... production assistant (8 episodes, 2010)
Sean Wolput.... key production assistant (8 episodes, 2010)
Joshua Williams.... production assistant (7 episodes, 2008-2009)
Maire Ni Rochain.... production coordinator (7 episodes, 2009-2010)
Michael Bishop.... production assistant (7 episodes, 2009)
Joseph Lombardi.... production accountant (7 episodes, 2009)
Joshua A. Friedman.... production assistant (6 episodes, 2008)
Paul Kahil.... production assistant (6 episodes, 2008)
Michael Bendner.... background coordinator (6 episodes, 2009-2010)
Kymn Brettoner.... production accountant (6 episodes, 2009-2010)
Dan Majkut.... production assistant (6 episodes, 2009)
Joe Proietto.... office production assistant (5 episodes, 2008)
Anita Meehan-Truelove.... production coordinator (5 episodes, 2009-2010)
Steve Loff.... assistant accountant (5 episodes, 2009)
Sean M. Sullivan.... location scout (5 episodes, 2009)
Shawn Wilson.... assistant accountant (5 episodes, 2009)
Imran Yusufzai.... accounting clerk (5 episodes, 2009)
Lilla Zuckerman.... staff writer (5 episodes, 2010)
Jillian Demmerle.... location coordinator (4 episodes, 2008)
Quincy Gow.... production secretary (4 episodes, 2008)
Orit Greenberg.... location scout (4 episodes, 2008)
Liz Magee.... production assistant (4 episodes, 2008)
Lisa Molinaro.... script supervisor (4 episodes, 2008)
Melissa Kalbfus.... script supervisor: 2nd Unit (4 episodes, 2009)
Natalie Lapointe.... assistant: Reid Shane (4 episodes, 2009)
Ryan Steacy.... armorer (4 episodes, 2010)
Christina Cortez.... production assistant / additional production assistant (3 episodes, 2008-2009)
Scotch James Diaz Crisostomo.... payroll accountant (3 episodes, 2008)
Shannon Dennard.... location scout (3 episodes, 2008)
Catherine Gore.... script supervisor (3 episodes, 2008)
John F. Perez Jr..... location production assistant (3 episodes, 2008)
R. Zachary Shildwachter.... production assistant (3 episodes, 2008)
Paul Singh.... location scout (3 episodes, 2008)
Marisa Vrooman.... location scout (3 episodes, 2008)
Nils Widboom.... location scout (3 episodes, 2008)
Justin Doble.... script coordinator (3 episodes, 2009-2010)
Dan Kukkonen.... first assistant accountant (3 episodes, 2009)
Desiree Young.... location scout (3 episodes, 2009)
Robert Chiappetta.... story editor (3 episodes, 2010)
Ethan Gross.... story editor (3 episodes, 2010)
Colleen Reid.... assistant to director (3 episodes, 2010)
Glen Whitman.... story editor (3 episodes, 2010)
Nate Braeuer.... location scout (2 episodes, 2008)
Evan Gabriele.... assistant location manager (2 episodes, 2008)
Damon Michael Gordon.... location manager (2 episodes, 2008)
Corri Hopkins.... location assistant (2 episodes, 2008)
Keith Marlin.... background production assistant (2 episodes, 2008)
Anthony Vincent.... martial arts trainer: Joshua Jackson (2 episodes, 2008)
Devin Taylor.... playback editor (2 episodes, 2009-2010)
Amanda Bayard.... production assistant (2 episodes, 2009)
Michael Consolmagno.... production assistant (2 episodes, 2009)
Shane Lennox.... assistant location manager (2 episodes, 2009)
Loyzo Smolinsky.... production secretary (2 episodes, 2009)
Marina Alstad.... background coordinator (2 episodes, 2010)
Michelle Louise Bartolo.... assistant accountant (2 episodes, 2010)
Stuart Blackie.... office production assistant (2 episodes, 2010)
Jessica Feskun.... trainee assistant location manager (2 episodes, 2010)
Victor Formosa.... production assistant (2 episodes, 2010)
Steven Forster.... chef: Edible Planet (2 episodes, 2010)
Anji Freeland.... payroll: cast/US (2 episodes, 2010)
Jennifer Giannone.... clerk (2 episodes, 2010)
Ingrid Kenning.... script supervisor (2 episodes, 2010)
Tom MacNeill.... stand-in (2 episodes, 2010)
Marion Pejaire.... production assistant (2 episodes, 2010)
Sacha Schaddelee.... assistant chef: Edible Planet (2 episodes, 2010)
Cimone Schelle.... assistant chef: Edible Planet (2 episodes, 2010)
Tiffani Timms.... stand-in (2 episodes, 2010)
Linda Watters.... stand-in (2 episodes, 2010)
Lisa Wilder.... script supervisor (2 episodes, 2010)


Magali Boccaccio.... script coordinator (unknown episodes)
Amy Cuthbertson.... production coordinator (unknown episodes)
Stephanie Holinski.... production assistant (unknown episodes)
Andrea Voss.... assistant production coordinator (unknown episodes)
Casey Wallace.... production assistant (unknown episodes)

Series Thanks
Oliver Wyman.... special thanks (1 episode, 2010)

the zen garden

Image by quiet wave photos
Art is the product or process of deliberately arranging items (often with symbolic significance) in a way that influences and affects one or more of the senses, emotions, and intellect. It encompasses a diverse range of human activities, creations, and modes of expression, including music, literature, film, photography, sculpture, and paintings. The meaning of art is explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics, and even disciplines such as history and psychology analyze its relationship with humans and generations.

Traditionally, the term art was used to refer to any skill or mastery. This conception changed during the Romantic period, when art came to be seen as "a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science". Generally, art is made with the intention of stimulating thoughts and emotions.

Evaluation

Philosopher Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans. An object may be characterized by the intentions, or lack thereof, of its creator, regardless of its apparent purpose. A cup, which ostensibly can be used as a container, may be considered art if intended solely as an ornament, while a painting may be deemed craft if mass-produced.

The nature of art has been described by Wollheim as "one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture". It has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as mimesis or representation. Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another. Benedetto Croce and R.G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator. The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and was developed in the early twentieth century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. Art as mimesis or representation has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle. More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation.

Definition

Britannica Online defines art as "the use of skill and imagination in the creation of aesthetic objects, environments, or experiences that can be shared with others." By this definition of the word, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early pre-historic art to contemporary art; however, some theories restrict the concept to modern Western societies. Adorno said in 1970, "It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist." The first and broadest sense of art is the one that has remained closest to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft." A few examples where this meaning proves very broad include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, and military arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology.


20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.The second and more recent sense of the word art is as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art. Fine art means that a skill is being used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of the finer things. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it will be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference. However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.

Art can describe several things: a study of creative skill, a process of using the creative skill, a product of the creative skill, or the audience's experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disciplines (arts) that produce artworks (art as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and echo or reflect a message, mood, or symbolism for the viewer to interpret (art as experience). Artworks can be defined by purposeful, creative interpretations of limitless concepts or ideas in order to communicate something to another person. Artworks can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. It is also an expression of an idea and it can take many different forms and serve many different purposes. Although the application of scientific knowledge to derive a new scientific theory involves skill and results in the "creation" of something new, this represents science only and is not categorized as art.

History

Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings, and petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them. The oldest art objects in the world—a series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave.


Cave painting of a horse from the Lascaux caves, c. 16,000 BP.Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions.

In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of Biblical and nonmaterial truths, and used styles that showed the higher unseen glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe.

Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.


The stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in Arabic calligraphy. It reads Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious.In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning terracotta army of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang Dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming Dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing became important in Japan after the 17th century.


Painting by Song Dynasty artist Ma Lin, c. 1250. 24,8 × 25,2 cm.The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blake's portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or David's propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others.

The history of twentieth century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of Impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as Pablo Picasso being influenced by African sculpture. Japanese woodblock prints (which had themselves been influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, the west has had huge impacts on Eastern art in the 19th and 20th centuries, with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful influence on artistic styles.

Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with irony. Furthermore the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than regional cultures.

Characteristics

Art tends to facilitate intuitive rather than rational understanding, and is usually consciously created with this intention.[citation needed] Fine art intentionally serves no other purpose.[dubious – discuss] As a result of this impetus, works of art are elusive, refractive to attempts at classification, because they can be appreciated in more than one way, and are often susceptible to many different interpretations. In the case of Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, special knowledge concerning the shipwreck that the painting depicts is not a prerequisite to appreciating it, but allows the appreciation of Géricault's political intentions in the piece. Even art that superficially depicts a mundane event or object, may invite reflection upon elevated themes.

Traditionally, the highest achievements of art demonstrate a high level of ability or fluency within a medium. This characteristic might be considered a point of contention, since many modern artists (most notably, conceptual artists) do not themselves create the works they conceive, or do not even create the work in a conventional, demonstrative sense. Art has a transformative capacity: it confers particularly appealing or aesthetically satisfying structures or forms upon an original set of unrelated, passive constituents.

Forms, genres, media, and styles

The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, each related to its technique, or medium, such as decorative arts, plastic arts, performing arts, or literature. Unlike scientific fields, art is one of the few subjects that are academically organized according to technique [1]. An artistic medium is the substance or material the artistic work is made from, and may also refer to the technique used. For example, paint is a medium used in painting, and paper is a medium used in drawing.

An art form is the specific shape, or quality an artistic expression takes. The media used often influence the form. For example, the form of a sculpture must exist in space in three dimensions, and respond to gravity. The constraints and limitations of a particular medium are thus called its formal qualities. To give another example, the formal qualities of painting are the canvas texture, color, and brush texture. The formal qualities of video games are non-linearity, interactivity and virtual presence. The form of a particular work of art is determined by both the formal qualities of the media, and the intentions of the artist.

A genre is a set of conventions and styles within a particular medium. For instance, well recognized genres in film are western, horror and romantic comedy. Genres in music include death metal and trip hop. Genres in painting include still life and pastoral landscape. A particular work of art may bend or combine genres but each genre has a recognizable group of conventions, clichés and tropes. (One note: the word genre has a second older meaning within painting; genre painting was a phrase used in the 17th to 19th centuries to refer specifically to paintings of scenes of everyday life and can still be used in this way.)


The Great Wave off Kanagawa by Hokusai (Japanese, 1760–1849), colored woodcut print.The style of an artwork, artist, or movement is the distinctive method and form followed by the respective art. Any loose brushy, dripped or poured abstract painting is called expressionistic. Often a style is linked with a particular historical period, set of ideas, and particular artistic movement. So Jackson Pollock is called an Abstract Expressionist.

Because a particular style may have specific cultural meanings, it is important to be sensitive to differences in technique. Roy Lichtenstein's (1923–1997) paintings are not pointillist, despite his uses of dots, because they are not aligned with the original proponents of Pointillism. Lichtenstein used Ben-Day dots: they are evenly spaced and create flat areas of color. Dots of this type, used in halftone printing, were originally used in comic strips and newspapers to reproduce color. Lichtenstein thus uses the dots as a style to question the "high" art of painting with the "low" art of comics - to comment on class distinctions in culture. Lichtenstein is thus associated with the American Pop art movement (1960s). Pointillism is a technique in late Impressionism (1880s), developed especially by the artist Georges Seurat, that employs dots that are spaced in a way to create variation in color and depth in an attempt to paint images that were closer to the way people really see color. Both artists use dots, but the particular style and technique relate to the artistic movement adopted by each artist.

These are all ways of beginning to define a work of art, to narrow it down. "Imagine you are an art critic whose mission is to compare the meanings you find in a wide range of individual artworks. How would you proceed with your task? One way to begin is to examine the materials each artist selected in making an object, image video, or event. The decision to cast a sculpture in bronze, for instance, inevitably effects its meaning; the work becomes something different from how it might be if it had been cast in gold or plastic or chocolate, even if everything else about the artwork remains the same. Next, you might examine how the materials in each artwork have become an arrangement of shapes, colors, textures, and lines. These, in turn, are organized into various patterns and compositional structures. In your interpretation, you would comment on how salient features of the form contribute to the overall meaning of the finished artwork. [But in the end] the meaning of most artworks... is not exhausted by a discussion of materials, techniques, and form. Most interpretations also include a discussion of the ideas and feelings the artwork engenders."

Skill and craft

Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy and or depth. Art is an act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations. There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes. A common view is that the epithet "art", particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability or an originality in stylistic approach such as in the plays of Shakespeare, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. Rembrandt's work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled.

A common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain" is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects ("ready-made") and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills. Tracey Emin's My Bed, or Damien Hirst's The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living follow this example and also manipulate the mass media. Emin slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts. The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating hands-on works of art.

Value judgment

Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception", (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity.

Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, "good" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3rd of May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'.

The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist.

Communication

Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art explores what is commonly termed as the human condition; that is, essentially what it is to be human. Effective art often brings about some new insight concerning the human condition either singly or en masse, which is not necessarily always positive, or necessarily widens the boundaries of collective human ability. The degree of skill possessed by an artist will affect his or her ability to trigger an emotional response and thereby provide new insights, the ability to manipulate them at will shows exemplary skill and determination.

Purpose of art

Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is "vague", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Levi-Strauss).

Non-motivated functions of art

The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. Aristotle said, "Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature." [14] In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility.

1.Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm. Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.
"Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry." -Aristotle

2.Experience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to experience one's self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.
"The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science." -Albert Einstein

3.Expression of the imagination. Art provide a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are maleable.
"Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else - something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken." -Immanuel Kant

4.Universal communication. Art allows the individual to express things toward the world as a whole.[according to whom?] Earth artists often create art in remote locations that will never be experienced by another person. The practice of placing a cairn, or pile of stones at the top of a mountain, is an example. (Note: This need not suggest a particular view of God, or religion.) Art created in this way is a form of communication between the individual and the world as a whole.[citation needed]
5.Ritualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.
"Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'." -Silva Tomaskova

Motivated functions of art

Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) to sell a product, or simply as a form of communication.

1.Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.
"[Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication." -Steve Mithen

2.Art as entertainment. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of Motion Pictures and Video Games.
3.The Avante-Garde. Art for political change. One of the defining functions of early twentieth century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal—Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian Constructivism, and Abstract Expressionism, among others—are collectively referred to as the avante-garde arts.
"By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life." -André Breton (Surrealism)

4.Art for psychological and healing purposes. Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy.
5.Art for social inquiry, subversion and/or anarchy. While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be simply to criticize some aspect of society.

Spray-paint graffiti on a wall in Rome.Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stencilled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism).
6.Art for propaganda, or commercialism. Art is often utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object.
The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game.

Controversial art

Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (c. 1820), was a social commentary on a current event, unprecedented at the time. Édouard Manet's Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. John Singer Sargent's Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X) (1884), caused a huge uproar over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation.

In the twentieth century, Pablo Picasso's Guernica (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's Interrogation III (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss Christ (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christ's sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.

Art theories

In the nineteenth century, artists were primarily concerned with ideas of truth and beauty. The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature.

The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.

The arrival of Modernism in the late nineteenth century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function of art, and then again in the late twentieth century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960 article "Modernist Painting" defines modern art as "the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself".Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting:

Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations that constitute the medium of
painting – the flat surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment — were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.

After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century.

Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond high art to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography.

Classification disputes

Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art.

Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp's Fountain, the movies, superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games.

Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, "the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art" (Novitz, 1996). According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the Daily Mail criticized Hirst's and Emin's work by arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work. In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that "the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood."

Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art; it is term associated with Dadaism and attributed to Marcel Duchamp just before World War I, when he was making art from found objects. One of these, Fountain (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art. Anti-art is a feature of work by Situationist International,[31] the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the Young British Artists, though it is a form still rejected by the Stuckists, who describe themselves as anti-anti-art.

Art, class, and value

Art has been perceived by some as belonging to some social classes and often excluding others. In this context, art is seen as an upper-class activity associated with wealth, the ability to purchase art, and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it. For example, the palaces of Versailles or the Hermitage in St. Petersburg with their vast collections of art, amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of Europe exemplify this view. Collecting such art is the preserve of the rich, or of governments and institutions.

Fine and expensive goods have been popular markers of status in many cultures, and they continue to be so today. There has been a cultural push in the other direction since at least 1793, when the Louvre, which had been a private palace of the Kings of France, was opened to the public as an art museum during the French Revolution. Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses (The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status.


Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978 : Everyone an artist — On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism.There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is "necessary to present something more than mere objects" said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was simply an idea, it could not be bought and sold. "Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object."

In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works, invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. "With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors."

the zen garden

Image by quiet wave photos
Art is the product or process of deliberately arranging items (often with symbolic significance) in a way that influences and affects one or more of the senses, emotions, and intellect. It encompasses a diverse range of human activities, creations, and modes of expression, including music, literature, film, photography, sculpture, and paintings. The meaning of art is explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics, and even disciplines such as history and psychology analyze its relationship with humans and generations.

Traditionally, the term art was used to refer to any skill or mastery. This conception changed during the Romantic period, when art came to be seen as "a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science". Generally, art is made with the intention of stimulating thoughts and emotions.

Evaluation

Philosopher Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans. An object may be characterized by the intentions, or lack thereof, of its creator, regardless of its apparent purpose. A cup, which ostensibly can be used as a container, may be considered art if intended solely as an ornament, while a painting may be deemed craft if mass-produced.

The nature of art has been described by Wollheim as "one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture". It has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as mimesis or representation. Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another. Benedetto Croce and R.G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator. The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and was developed in the early twentieth century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. Art as mimesis or representation has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle. More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation.

Definition

Britannica Online defines art as "the use of skill and imagination in the creation of aesthetic objects, environments, or experiences that can be shared with others." By this definition of the word, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early pre-historic art to contemporary art; however, some theories restrict the concept to modern Western societies. Adorno said in 1970, "It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist." The first and broadest sense of art is the one that has remained closest to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft." A few examples where this meaning proves very broad include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, and military arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology.


20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.The second and more recent sense of the word art is as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art. Fine art means that a skill is being used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of the finer things. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it will be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference. However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.

Art can describe several things: a study of creative skill, a process of using the creative skill, a product of the creative skill, or the audience's experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disciplines (arts) that produce artworks (art as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and echo or reflect a message, mood, or symbolism for the viewer to interpret (art as experience). Artworks can be defined by purposeful, creative interpretations of limitless concepts or ideas in order to communicate something to another person. Artworks can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. It is also an expression of an idea and it can take many different forms and serve many different purposes. Although the application of scientific knowledge to derive a new scientific theory involves skill and results in the "creation" of something new, this represents science only and is not categorized as art.

History

Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings, and petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them. The oldest art objects in the world—a series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave.


Cave painting of a horse from the Lascaux caves, c. 16,000 BP.Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions.

In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of Biblical and nonmaterial truths, and used styles that showed the higher unseen glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe.

Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.


The stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in Arabic calligraphy. It reads Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious.In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning terracotta army of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang Dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming Dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing became important in Japan after the 17th century.


Painting by Song Dynasty artist Ma Lin, c. 1250. 24,8 × 25,2 cm.The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blake's portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or David's propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others.

The history of twentieth century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of Impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as Pablo Picasso being influenced by African sculpture. Japanese woodblock prints (which had themselves been influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, the west has had huge impacts on Eastern art in the 19th and 20th centuries, with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful influence on artistic styles.

Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with irony. Furthermore the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than regional cultures.

Characteristics

Art tends to facilitate intuitive rather than rational understanding, and is usually consciously created with this intention.[citation needed] Fine art intentionally serves no other purpose.[dubious – discuss] As a result of this impetus, works of art are elusive, refractive to attempts at classification, because they can be appreciated in more than one way, and are often susceptible to many different interpretations. In the case of Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, special knowledge concerning the shipwreck that the painting depicts is not a prerequisite to appreciating it, but allows the appreciation of Géricault's political intentions in the piece. Even art that superficially depicts a mundane event or object, may invite reflection upon elevated themes.

Traditionally, the highest achievements of art demonstrate a high level of ability or fluency within a medium. This characteristic might be considered a point of contention, since many modern artists (most notably, conceptual artists) do not themselves create the works they conceive, or do not even create the work in a conventional, demonstrative sense. Art has a transformative capacity: it confers particularly appealing or aesthetically satisfying structures or forms upon an original set of unrelated, passive constituents.

Forms, genres, media, and styles

The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, each related to its technique, or medium, such as decorative arts, plastic arts, performing arts, or literature. Unlike scientific fields, art is one of the few subjects that are academically organized according to technique [1]. An artistic medium is the substance or material the artistic work is made from, and may also refer to the technique used. For example, paint is a medium used in painting, and paper is a medium used in drawing.

An art form is the specific shape, or quality an artistic expression takes. The media used often influence the form. For example, the form of a sculpture must exist in space in three dimensions, and respond to gravity. The constraints and limitations of a particular medium are thus called its formal qualities. To give another example, the formal qualities of painting are the canvas texture, color, and brush texture. The formal qualities of video games are non-linearity, interactivity and virtual presence. The form of a particular work of art is determined by both the formal qualities of the media, and the intentions of the artist.

A genre is a set of conventions and styles within a particular medium. For instance, well recognized genres in film are western, horror and romantic comedy. Genres in music include death metal and trip hop. Genres in painting include still life and pastoral landscape. A particular work of art may bend or combine genres but each genre has a recognizable group of conventions, clichés and tropes. (One note: the word genre has a second older meaning within painting; genre painting was a phrase used in the 17th to 19th centuries to refer specifically to paintings of scenes of everyday life and can still be used in this way.)


The Great Wave off Kanagawa by Hokusai (Japanese, 1760–1849), colored woodcut print.The style of an artwork, artist, or movement is the distinctive method and form followed by the respective art. Any loose brushy, dripped or poured abstract painting is called expressionistic. Often a style is linked with a particular historical period, set of ideas, and particular artistic movement. So Jackson Pollock is called an Abstract Expressionist.

Because a particular style may have specific cultural meanings, it is important to be sensitive to differences in technique. Roy Lichtenstein's (1923–1997) paintings are not pointillist, despite his uses of dots, because they are not aligned with the original proponents of Pointillism. Lichtenstein used Ben-Day dots: they are evenly spaced and create flat areas of color. Dots of this type, used in halftone printing, were originally used in comic strips and newspapers to reproduce color. Lichtenstein thus uses the dots as a style to question the "high" art of painting with the "low" art of comics - to comment on class distinctions in culture. Lichtenstein is thus associated with the American Pop art movement (1960s). Pointillism is a technique in late Impressionism (1880s), developed especially by the artist Georges Seurat, that employs dots that are spaced in a way to create variation in color and depth in an attempt to paint images that were closer to the way people really see color. Both artists use dots, but the particular style and technique relate to the artistic movement adopted by each artist.

These are all ways of beginning to define a work of art, to narrow it down. "Imagine you are an art critic whose mission is to compare the meanings you find in a wide range of individual artworks. How would you proceed with your task? One way to begin is to examine the materials each artist selected in making an object, image video, or event. The decision to cast a sculpture in bronze, for instance, inevitably effects its meaning; the work becomes something different from how it might be if it had been cast in gold or plastic or chocolate, even if everything else about the artwork remains the same. Next, you might examine how the materials in each artwork have become an arrangement of shapes, colors, textures, and lines. These, in turn, are organized into various patterns and compositional structures. In your interpretation, you would comment on how salient features of the form contribute to the overall meaning of the finished artwork. [But in the end] the meaning of most artworks... is not exhausted by a discussion of materials, techniques, and form. Most interpretations also include a discussion of the ideas and feelings the artwork engenders."

Skill and craft

Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy and or depth. Art is an act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations. There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes. A common view is that the epithet "art", particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability or an originality in stylistic approach such as in the plays of Shakespeare, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. Rembrandt's work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled.

A common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain" is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects ("ready-made") and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills. Tracey Emin's My Bed, or Damien Hirst's The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living follow this example and also manipulate the mass media. Emin slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts. The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating hands-on works of art.

Value judgment

Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception", (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity.

Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, "good" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3rd of May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'.

The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist.

Communication

Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art explores what is commonly termed as the human condition; that is, essentially what it is to be human. Effective art often brings about some new insight concerning the human condition either singly or en masse, which is not necessarily always positive, or necessarily widens the boundaries of collective human ability. The degree of skill possessed by an artist will affect his or her ability to trigger an emotional response and thereby provide new insights, the ability to manipulate them at will shows exemplary skill and determination.

Purpose of art

Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is "vague", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Levi-Strauss).

Non-motivated functions of art

The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. Aristotle said, "Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature." [14] In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility.

1.Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm. Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.
"Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry." -Aristotle

2.Experience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to experience one's self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.
"The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science." -Albert Einstein

3.Expression of the imagination. Art provide a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are maleable.
"Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else - something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken." -Immanuel Kant

4.Universal communication. Art allows the individual to express things toward the world as a whole.[according to whom?] Earth artists often create art in remote locations that will never be experienced by another person. The practice of placing a cairn, or pile of stones at the top of a mountain, is an example. (Note: This need not suggest a particular view of God, or religion.) Art created in this way is a form of communication between the individual and the world as a whole.[citation needed]
5.Ritualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.
"Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'." -Silva Tomaskova

Motivated functions of art

Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) to sell a product, or simply as a form of communication.

1.Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.
"[Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication." -Steve Mithen

2.Art as entertainment. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of Motion Pictures and Video Games.
3.The Avante-Garde. Art for political change. One of the defining functions of early twentieth century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal—Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian Constructivism, and Abstract Expressionism, among others—are collectively referred to as the avante-garde arts.
"By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life." -André Breton (Surrealism)

4.Art for psychological and healing purposes. Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy.
5.Art for social inquiry, subversion and/or anarchy. While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be simply to criticize some aspect of society.

Spray-paint graffiti on a wall in Rome.Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stencilled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism).
6.Art for propaganda, or commercialism. Art is often utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object.
The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game.

Controversial art

Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (c. 1820), was a social commentary on a current event, unprecedented at the time. Édouard Manet's Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. John Singer Sargent's Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X) (1884), caused a huge uproar over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation.

In the twentieth century, Pablo Picasso's Guernica (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's Interrogation III (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss Christ (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christ's sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.

Art theories

In the nineteenth century, artists were primarily concerned with ideas of truth and beauty. The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature.

The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.

The arrival of Modernism in the late nineteenth century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function of art, and then again in the late twentieth century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960 article "Modernist Painting" defines modern art as "the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself".Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting:

Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations that constitute the medium of
painting – the flat surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment — were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.

After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century.

Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond high art to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography.

Classification disputes

Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art.

Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp's Fountain, the movies, superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games.

Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, "the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art" (Novitz, 1996). According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the Daily Mail criticized Hirst's and Emin's work by arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work. In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that "the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood."

Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art; it is term associated with Dadaism and attributed to Marcel Duchamp just before World War I, when he was making art from found objects. One of these, Fountain (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art. Anti-art is a feature of work by Situationist International,[31] the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the Young British Artists, though it is a form still rejected by the Stuckists, who describe themselves as anti-anti-art.

Art, class, and value

Art has been perceived by some as belonging to some social classes and often excluding others. In this context, art is seen as an upper-class activity associated with wealth, the ability to purchase art, and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it. For example, the palaces of Versailles or the Hermitage in St. Petersburg with their vast collections of art, amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of Europe exemplify this view. Collecting such art is the preserve of the rich, or of governments and institutions.

Fine and expensive goods have been popular markers of status in many cultures, and they continue to be so today. There has been a cultural push in the other direction since at least 1793, when the Louvre, which had been a private palace of the Kings of France, was opened to the public as an art museum during the French Revolution. Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses (The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status.


Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978 : Everyone an artist — On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism.There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is "necessary to present something more than mere objects" said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was simply an idea, it could not be bought and sold. "Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object."

In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works, invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. "With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors."